Science and Technology Quick Revision Part-7

India’s Nuclear Program:

• Started in 1948 under Dr. Homi J. Bhabha.
• Governing Body:Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), established in 1954.
• India follows a 3-stage Nuclear Power Program focusing on indigenous technology.
• India’s first nuclear power station, Tarapur, went into operation in 1969.
• India’s first indigenous Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) is operational at Kakrapar, Gujarat.
• India’s first indigenous Fast Breeder Reactor (500 MWe) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
• Nuclear Power Contribution: ~3% of India’s electricity production.
• As of 2023, India has 22 operational nuclear reactors with a total installed capacity of 6,780 MWe.
• As of January 30, 2025, India’s nuclear capacity is 8180 MW.
• India aims to increase its nuclear capacity to 22,480 MWe by 2031.
• India aims to achieve 100 GW of nuclear energy capacity by 2047.
• Atomic Energy Act, 1962: Provides the legal framework for the development and regulation of atomic energy in India.
• Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010: Addresses liability in the event of a nuclear accident. Holds operators liable for damages, with provisions for supplier liability.
• Three-Stage Nuclear Power Program:
  • Stage 1: Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium as fuel, heavy water (D₂O) as moderator. Examples: Tarapur, Kakrapar, Kudankulam, etc.
  • Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) using plutonium and uranium-233. Example: Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu
  • Stage 3: Thorium-based reactors to utilize India’s vast thorium reserves.
• Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs): Use enriched uranium as fuel and light water as coolant and moderator. Example: Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS).
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWRs): Designed to use thorium-uranium-233 fuel cycle. Under development as part of Stage 3 of India’s nuclear program.
• Bharat Small Reactors(BSRs) are 220 MW Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs).

Nuclear Power Plants in India:

Nuclear Research Facilities:

• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC): Premier nuclear research facility.
• Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR): Focuses on fast breeder reactors.
• Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC): For nuclear physics research.
• Electronics Corporation of India: A research center in Hyderabad that supports India’s nuclear power program.
• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is a wholly owned Government of India enterprise. It is responsible for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of nuclear power plants in India.

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (CLND) Act, 2010:

• Purpose: To provide compensation for nuclear damage in case of a nuclear accident in India.
• Operator’s Absolute Liability (No-Fault Liability)
  • Nuclear plant operators must pay compensation for damage without proving fault.
  • Operator liability is capped at ₹1,500 crore (can be increased by the government).
• Right to Recourse (Section 17)
  • Operator can sue suppliers for compensation if: The accident was due to supplier’s faulty equipment; and the supply agreement explicitly allows for recourse.
• The Act provides for the establishment of a Nuclear Damage Claims Commission to assess and award compensation to victims.

International Nuclear Agreements:

1. Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008):

• Also known as the 123 Agreement.
• Allows India to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from the US.
• Marks a turning point in India’s nuclear isolation after the 1974 and 1998 nuclear tests.

2. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) Waiver (2008):

• Granted India a waiver to engage in nuclear trade despite not being a signatory to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
• Enabled India to access nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.
• India has sought membership in the NSG but faces opposition from countries like China.

3. Agreements with Other Countries:

• France: Signed in 2008, allows for cooperation in nuclear energy and technology.
• Russia: Signed in 2008, supports the construction of reactors at Kudankulam.
• Canada: Signed in 2010, focuses on uranium supply and PHWR technology.
• Australia: Signed in 2014, allows uranium exports to India.
• Japan: Signed in 2016, facilitates nuclear energy cooperation.

4. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Safeguards Agreement:

• Signed in 2009, allows IAEA to monitor India’s civilian nuclear facilities.
• Ensures that nuclear materials are used for peaceful purposes.

5. Additional Protocol with IAEA:

• Signed in 2009, enhances transparency and allows broader IAEA inspections.

6. Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):

• India joined on 27 June 2016, gaining access to advanced missile technology.
• Formed in 1987 by the G-7 countries.
• MTCR is not a treaty and does not impose any legally binding obligations on members.

7. Wassenaar Arrangement:

• India joined on 8 December 2017, enabling participation in global export controls for conventional weapons and dual-use technologies.
• Established: 1996.
• Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
• Purpose: To control export of conventional arms & dual-use technologies to prevent misuse.
• Members: 42 countries (as of 2024). India 42nd memeber.

8. Australia Group:

• India joined on 19 January 2018, focusing on chemical and biological weapons non-proliferation.
• Established: 1985 (after Iraq’s chemical weapons use in the Iran-Iraq War).
• Purpose: Prevents proliferation of chemical & biological weapons by controlling exports.
• Members: 43 countries + European Union (EU) (as of 2024). India 43rd member.

Strategic Policies of India:

1. No First Use (NFU) Policy:
   • India’s nuclear doctrine states that it will not use nuclear weapons first in a conflict.
   • However, India reserves the right to retaliate with nuclear weapons if attacked with nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.
2. Credible Minimum Deterrence:
   • India maintains a small but effective nuclear arsenal to deter adversaries.
   • Focuses on survivability and second-strike capability.
3. Nuclear Command Authority (NCA):
   • Established in 2003, it oversees India’s nuclear arsenal.
   • Consists of the Political Council (headed by the Prime Minister) and the Executive Council (headed by the National Security Advisor).

Applications of Radioisotopes:

• What are Radioisotopes?
  • Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes of elements that emit radiation.
  • Used in medicine, industry, agriculture, research, and energy production.
  • Examples: Uranium-235, Cobalt-60, Iodine-131, Carbon-14, Technetium-99m.
• Medical Applications
  • Cancer Treatment (Radiotherapy): Cobalt-60, Iodine-131 used in radiation therapy for tumors.
  • Technetium-99m used in imaging bones, heart, and kidneys.
  • Iodine-131 used for treating thyroid disorders (hyperthyroidism & thyroid cancer).
  • Cobalt-60 used to sterilize surgical tools.
• Industry Applications
  • Iridium-192, Cobalt-60 used to detect flaws in metal structures (pipelines, aircraft, bridges).
  • Radioactive tracers help in mapping underground oil and gas reserves.
  • Strontium-90, Krypton-85 used in gauging thickness of materials in paper, plastic, and steel industries.
• Agricultural Applications
  • Gamma rays (Cobalt-60, Cesium-137) used to develop high-yield, disease-resistant crops.
  • Radioisotopes like Phosphorus-32 are used to study nutrient uptake in plants and optimize fertilizer use.
  • Cobalt-60, Cesium-137 kill bacteria & extend shelf life of food items.
• Scientific Research & Carbon Dating
  • Carbon-14 Dating (Archaeology & Fossils): Used to determine the age of ancient objects & fossils.
  • Phosphorus-32, Sulfur-35 help track biological processes.

Commonly Used Radioisotopes

Source: GOI Websites, PIB, Internet